Criticism also came from those involved in its implementation - as well as from the poor themselves. This shared frustration, fuelled by racism, discrimination, and differing expectations, laid the foundation for the persistent narrative of failed poverty policy, which continues to exert influence today. This is the conclusion drawn by historian Heleen Blommers.

Widespread Criticism

Blommers explains: "Most historians attribute the perception of failure to conservative politicians, who strongly opposed the War on Poverty because the programme also supported groups previously excluded from government aid, such as African Americans. However, criticism and frustration were much more widespread."

Race Riots

Even those who worked on the programme and the poor themselves were dissatisfied. Blommers: "There was friction between these groups because each had their own ideas about how the programme should be implemented. Racism, discrimination, and prejudices about poverty played a major role in shaping these ideas. Major race riots and the 'discovery' of hunger in 1967 laid bare the frustrations of the poor. At the same time, the riots reinforced the notion that the poor were lazy and criminal. Richard Nixon reformed the War on Poverty, tapping into the sentiment that some of the poor were undeserving of help. During these years, the idea of failure became deeply entrenched."

The Undeserving Poor

The War on Poverty took place at a time when support for the welfare state in the US was declining. Poverty remains widespread in the country, and public backing for government support to the poor is relatively low - even among Democrats. Blommers notes: "There was, for instance, strong opposition to Obama's Affordable Care Act. And despite his growing popularity, Bernie Sanders is still branded a radical because of his welfare state ideals. The belief that some of the poor are 'undeserving' is a key factor in this."

Hearings

Blommers conducted archival research in Austin, Washington D.C., Baltimore, Detroit, Atlanta, and Kentucky. She examined correspondence between politicians and policymakers, reports and studies on the programme, archives of civil rights organisations, and local poverty projects.
She also reviewed old newspaper articles and transcripts of political hearings on the War on Poverty. Blommers: "I studied how the programme was implemented in Georgia, Baltimore, and Kentucky. Who thought what, why, and to what extent local criticism was reflected in national debates on the programme."

Perspective

Blommers also sought out the voices of the poor themselves: "Their perspective is often poorly preserved and frequently overlooked in historical research. Through transcripts of public hearings and correspondence found in archives, I was able to include their point of view as well."

Dutch Childcare Benefits Scandal

Blommers' research illustrates how racism, discrimination, and stereotypes about the poor have shaped the American welfare state. According to her, there are also lessons for the Netherlands: "It shows how ideas about benefit recipients shape public support for, and implementation of, policy - as seen in the Dutch childcare benefits scandal. There, public demands for strict enforcement, the makeup of the target group, and discriminatory practices in execution all played a role."