Impact and Added Value of the Mandate of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of the Rights of Persons with Albinism

The Independent Expert on the human rights of persons with albinism, established in 2015 by the Human Rights Council and renewed by consensus since then, has been, and remains, a vital tool in raising awareness of the challenges and discrimination faced by people with albinism around the world and documenting them in depth, including their different dimensions and geographical variations. The mandate has helped governments and policy makers identify concrete measures to better respect, protect and fulfil their rights, and to combat discrimination, violence and harmful stereotypes.

Albinism is a genetic condition characterized by reduced or absent melanin, commonly resulting in low vision and extreme sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation. Across sub-Saharan Africa, persons with albinism are estimated to be up to 1,000 times more likely to develop skin cancer than the general population. Across the world, persons with albinism continue to face stigma and intersecting and aggravated forms of discrimination, insecurity, and barriers to work, education, health care, and social security, undermining their rights, income security, and equal participation. In some countries, persons with albinism also continue to face violence.

Deeply rooted myths and harmful beliefs have fueled killings, abductions, sexual violence, grave desecrations targeting the remains of persons with albinism, and other abuses in a number of countries. Although reported attacks appear to have declined in recent years in some countries, the fear, insecurity, and exclusion resulting from decades of violence remain a daily reality for many. At the same time, cases are being reported in countries where none had previously been documented, including Madagascar, where cases were first reported in 2021. Furthermore, preventable deaths from skin cancer, limited access to vision-related support services, and persistent discrimination in employment opportunities and in other spheres continue to impede the enjoyment of fundamental rights.

These challenges are distinct in both their nature and their scope. The unique focus brought by a dedicated mandate holder has enabled a nuanced cross-cutting approach to the specific and interrelated range of rights issues faced by people with albinism. It has elevated these issues as rights concerns, whose invisibility is often at the heart of the problem. The mandate has also provided a global platform for advocacy and coordination, strengthening the albinism movement, facilitating the exchange of good practices, and highlighting the need for further legislative and policy reform.

Persons with albinism face unique and often life-threatening risks that require dedicated attention and targeted responses. The mandate's core functions of raising awareness and understanding at local, national, regional and international levels, supporting the development of policy and legislative measures to better respect, protect, and fulfil rights, promoting accountability, and amplifying the voices of persons with albinism remain essential to addressing these persistent challenges.

Achievements and Impact of the UN Mandate on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism

Raising Awareness and Recognition of Albinism as a Human Rights Issue

Over the past decade, the mandate's thematic reports have shaped global discourse and raised awareness and understanding of the specific challenges faced by persons with albinism in the enjoyment of their rights. They have helped elevate a range of previously underreported issues, from attacks and killings to the wider consequences of stigma and discrimination, including barriers in education, employment, the psychosocial impact of color-based discrimination, and the disproportionate impact of climate change on persons with albinism. The mandate has worked to advance the inclusion of persons with albinism in discussions in which they have often remained invisible and left behind, resulting in further violations of their rights. These have included discussions on persons with albinism on the move, human rights defenders with albinism, and the right to family life.

The mandate's country visits across all continents, together with other collaborative initiatives, have helped foster greater understanding of albinism as a human rights issue at the local, national, regional, and international levels. Examples of this impact include:

• The United Republic of Tanzania initiated widespread public education campaigns to combat discrimination and violence against persons with albinism following the independent expert's first visit to the country in 2017.
• A visit to Kenya in 2019 prompted the national human rights commission (KNCHR) to recognize persons with albinism as a protected group and begin tracking violations through its Complaints Management System.
• The visit to Madagascar in 2022 helped spearhead the development of a National Action Plan on albinism, which remains underway. It further led to increased capacity building of local albinism organizations and the inclusion of the voices of persons with albinism in discussions related to them.
• The visit to the USA in 2024, highlighted overlooked forms of albinism, such as Hermansky Pudlak Syndrome (HPS) prevalent in Puerto Rico, and the failure to provide necessary lifesaving healthcare required for the additional health complications, including access to hematologists, pulmonologists, and gastrointestinal specialists, as well as genetic testing to identify the type of albinism.
• The mandate has helped shine a spotlight on the situation of persons with albinism in countries where little information was previously available, including in Pakistan. Following a visit to Pakistan in June 2026, the Ministry of Human Rights organized regional convenings with persons with albinism to commemorate international albinism awareness day.
• The mandate helped reinvigorate long-standing discussions on improving access to health care in Brazil. Following the 2019 country visit, the federal government took concrete steps, including strengthening primary health care and expanding the Pro-Albino programme nationally. In November 2023, Brazil's National Health Council approved the Política Nacional de Atenção Integral à Saúde das Pessoas com Albinismo (National Policy for Comprehensive Health Care for Persons with Albinism), illustrating the potential impact of the mandate's country visits.
• The mandate has also increased the visibility of persons with albinism globally, contributing to sustained coverage in major international media outlets and greater public awareness of the human rights challenges faced by persons with albinism.

National, regional, and international policy and legislation to protect the rights of persons with albinism

The mandate has played an important role in promoting laws, policies and other measures to protect the rights of persons with albinism and address the discrimination and challenges they face. Through engagement with affected communities and key stakeholders, it has helped inform and advance policy and legislative responses at the national level.

Some examples of impact reported in this regard at national level include:

• The United Republic of Tanzania revised the Penal Code Act, which criminalizes attacks against persons with albinism and recognizes such attacks as hate crimes, and developed the National Albinism Health Programme and National Strategy for Inclusive Education to foster inclusive education and access to healthcare services.
• South Africa passed the Prevention and Combating of Hate Crimes and Hate Speech Act, heeding calls to expedite the passing of the hate speech bill. The country has also created a National Strategic Framework on Self-Representation (2021) and a National Strategic Framework for Awareness Raising (2022).
• Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Uganda, and the United Republic of Tanzania, developed comprehensive national action plans on albinism following the Independent Expert's visit, in fulfilment of the recommendation to execute the Regional Action Plan on Albinism 2017-2021. Madagascar is in the process of developing one.
• Kenya, Malawi, and the United Republic of Tanzania began gathering data on the prevalence of albinism through their censuses, in line with the recommendation made by the then Independent Expert following her visits.

The mandate has also contributed to the adoption of regional standards and guidelines. For example:

• The African Union Plan of Action on Ending Attacks and Discrimination against Persons with Albinism (2021-2031);
• The Pan-African Parliament Guidelines on the Elimination of Harmful Practices Related to Accusations of Witchcraft and Ritual Attacks, which provide a practical instrument for parliamentarians across the continent in bringing attention to these harmful practices and accelerating their elimination;
• Most recently, the Guiding Note on Reporting on the Rights and Welfare of Children with Albinism in Africa developed by the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child in collaboration with the mandate to ensure state reporting on children with albinism.

The mandate has also driven global protection through engagement at international level. For example:

• Successfully advocated, in collaboration with the Global Albinism Alliance, the UN Special Rapporteur on Climate Change, and other organizations, for the inclusion of broad-spectrum sunscreen to the WHO Model List of Essential Medicine List (EML) , following the removal of an earlier, differently specified sunscreen entry, in 2005. The two independent experts welcomed its inclusion as "an important development in the long struggle to draw attention to, and find practical, effective and sustainable remedies, for the needless deaths caused by skin cancer for persons with albinism." The achievement was also welcomed by civil society.
  • It has been reported that in Chile, the inclusion of sunscreen in the WHO's EML significantly supported CSOs' efforts and led to free sunscreen access through the public primary healthcare system and is likely to have significant impact in countries around the world.
• Informed by CSOs on attacks against people with albinism online, the IE alerted the tech platform TikTok to hate speech against persons with albinism. This prompted the adoption of stronger internal TikTok guidelines that have helped to curb the spread of harmful content against people with albinism.

Technical assistance and capacity building

The Independent Expert has supported governments to provide advice and guidance on law and policy implementation. For example, the mandate has:

• Responded positively to a request from Panama to advise on recommendations made on the development of a framework to ensure implementation of the law protecting the rights of persons with albinism.
• Reviewed and provided inputs into the development of National Action Plans at the request of government authorities, including Angola, South Africa, Uganda, and Zambia.
• Collaborated with UNICEF in Madagascar and Zambia to undertake research into the situation of persons with albinism in the respective countries.
• Provided technical support to UNHCR in including persons with albinism in the development of standards applicable to refugees with disabilities.

Engagement with persons with albinism, Civil Society Organizations, and victims of human rights violations and their families

Meaningful engagement with persons with albinism, civil society organizations, and victims of violations and their families has been central to the work of the mandate. These exchanges have informed the mandate's understanding of protection gaps and human rights challenges, while supporting advocacy, accountability, and efforts to advance the rights of persons with albinism.

• The mandate has raised a number of cases submitted by individuals, victims, family members, human rights defenders, and civil society organizations with a view to enhancing accountability and protective action for persons with albinism, focusing on attacks, killings and the trafficking of body parts, as well as access to healthcare and legislative protection.
• People with albinism have been directly included in in-person participation before the Human Rights Council during the Interactive Dialogue after the presentation of the report by the independent expert. In addition to being an impactful way to raise awareness, this directly mirrors the principle of 'nothing about us without us', allowing people with albinism to directly represent themselves when speaking about issues and recommendations that concern them.
• The mandate has also facilitated human rights capacity-building workshops for European albinism groups, online in December 2022, and in Geneva in March 2023; for Francophone albinism groups from across Africa in Côte d'Ivoire in May 2023, and for Lusophone groups from Mozambique in October 2023, as well as for albinism leaders from around the world in Geneva in March 2026. In addition, the mandate has facilitated engagements for the Southern Africa Regional Police Chiefs Cooperation together with Interpol in relation to the trafficking of persons with albinism in Southern Africa. The mandate will also conduct a series of trainings for justice sector actors in Zambia (Police, lawyers, judges. Prosecutors) in September 2026.

On-going challenges faced by persons with albinism require sustained engagement

As discussed, despite the significant impact the mandate has had over the past decade, persons with albinism around the world continue to face human rights violations. Continued progress requires sustained attention to the full range of human rights violations they face. The mandate provides a unique focal point for these efforts, bringing together issues that cut across health, disability, equality, and protection from violence, and ensuring sustained visibility. While a range of actors within the United Nations contribute to the advancement of these objectives, the mandate plays a unique role by providing an independent, dedicated, and globally recognized focal point for monitoring, advocacy, and engagement on the human rights of persons with albinism. Its proven track record, outlined above, demonstrates both what can be achieved through dedicated attention and why that attention remains necessary.

Attacks, violence and discrimination

• In some countries, people with albinism remain targets of attacks. In some countries, their graves are desecrated, their body parts are taken out and trafficked. This commodification of human beings is highly unusual, both among disability groups and across human rights issues more broadly. There is also an apparent expansion of attacks in countries such as Madagascar, where groups denounced desecration of graves, or Uganda, where the latest reported ritual attack against a boy dates back to April 2026.
• Discrimination against people with albinism remains persistent: even in absence of physical attacks, people with albinism in many countries continue to face stigmatization, derogatory language and social exclusion.
• Despite some prosecutions of attacks against persons with albinism, concerns remain regarding accountability and access to justice. An NGO-led report supported by the mandate shows that at least 29 cases between 2014 and 2024 were filed with only 8 known to have resulted in convictions. The mandate has consistently highlighted the need to combat impunity for attacks, killings, mutilations, and other harmful practices targeting persons with albinism.

Access to health, education and employment

• Stigma also results in barriers in accessing specialized health care, such as trained ophthalmologists and dermatologists to deal with albinism-related health issues. In some countries, high costs represent a barrier in accessing specialists visits, as well as health products including sunscreen. In addition, attitudinal barriers and lack of knowledge of albinism by health officials also prevent access to appropriate health care and services for persons with albinism.
• Access to education and employment opportunities is also an issue. Attitudinal barriers (including bullying by fellow students and teachers, or employers and colleagues), the lack of access to reasonable accommodation, and assistive devices, as well as challenges getting to school or work either due to fear of attacks or mobility issues, result in school dropout or prevent people from exercising their right to work. This also leads to limited job opportunities later in life, representing an important root cause for economic inequalities.

Absence of disaggregated data limits the effectiveness of policies

• Across countries, the absence of disaggregated data is a challenge, resulting in a lack of policies to address the unique and intersecting issues faced by people with albinism.
• Without disaggregated data, access to sunscreen, protective clothing, skin cancer prevention, and low-vision support can be overlooked in refugee, humanitarian, and development programs.

Albinism and Climate Change

• As our climate warms and UV radiation increases, sun exposure becomes an extremely dangerous hazard for people with albinism, especially in hot tropical climates. Some attacks and killings are aimed at using body parts of people with albinism in rituals in the false belief that this will bring favorable weather conditions or better harvests. Furthermore, the insecurity of persons with albinism increases during and following climate change-related natural disasters, as they may be wrongly blamed for causing them.
• In relation to climate change, it is also important to bear in mind that small islands are generally considered highly vulnerable to climate change due to rising sea levels caused by climate change. Small islands also generally have high prevalence rates of albinism, e.g., the San Blas islands of Panama have a prevalence of 1 in 210 to 1 in 617. However, persons with albinism are rarely consulted or included in the development of climate change mitigation and adaption policies.

Conclusion

Over the past decade, the mandate of the Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism has played a critical role in building a comprehensive understanding of the situation of persons with albinism and documenting it in depth, including its diverse manifestations across regions and contexts. Through awareness-raising, technical assistance, engagement with governments and regional bodies, and close collaboration with persons with albinism and civil society organizations, the mandate has contributed to concrete policy, legislative, and institutional progress at national, regional, and international levels.

However, significant challenges persist, and the progress achieved has not resolved the various issues identified. Violence, discrimination, barriers to health care, humanitarian assistance, education, employment, and justice, and the emerging impacts of climate change continue to affect persons with albinism in many parts of the world.

It is therefore essential that the mandate continue, not only to address emerging issues, but also to revisit the topics covered in previous reports and reassess the situations documented, in order to determine what has changed and measure progress over time.

As these challenges evolve, sustained international attention and accountability remain essential. Renewing the mandate would be crucial to follow up on the numerous recommendations made following thematic and country visits to ensure continued progress, support implementation of existing commitments, and advance the full and equal enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism worldwide. Such follow-up would help identify progress, persistent gaps and lessons learned, while encouraging governments to sustain and strengthen their efforts.

1. ^

   Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), "Mandate of the Independent Expert on the Human Rights of Persons with Albinism," https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/ie-albinism/mandate-independent-expert-human-rights-persons-albinism (accessed September 24, 2026).

2. ^

   UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2025, UN Doc. A/HRC/58/57, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/58/57 (accessed September 24, 2026).

3. ^

   Ibid.

4. ^

   Human Rights Watch, "'I Just Want to Work Without Fear:' Discrimination and Violations of the Right to Work for Persons with Albinism in Malawi," June 2026 https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2026/06/drd_malawi0626web_0.pdf.

5. ^

   United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), "In Madagascar, UNICEF Condemns Crimes Committed Against People with Albinism and Is Committed to Working with All Stakeholders for Their Protection," press release, March 7, 2022, https://www.unicef.org/madagascar/en/press-releases/madagascar-unicef-condemns-crimes-committed-against-people-albinism-and-committed (accessed September 24, 2026).

6. ^

   United Nations General Assembly, Social Development Challenges Faced by Persons with Albinism: Report of the Secretary-General, A/72/169, July 19, 2017, https://docs.un.org/en/A/72/169.

7. ^

   International Service for Human Rights (ISHR), "HRC61: ISHR, GAA Stress Value of UN Mandate on Human Rights of Persons with Albinism," June 2026, https://ishr.ch/latest-updates/hrc61-ishr-gaa-stress-value-of-un-mandate-on-human-rights-of-persons-with-albinism/ (accessed October 2, 2026).

8. ^

   Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), "Annual Thematic Reports," Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of Human Rights by Persons with Albinism, https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/ie-albinism/reports (accessed September 24, 2026).

9. ^

   Ibid.

10. ^

    OHCHR, "Country Visits," Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of Human Rights by Persons with Albinism, https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/ie-albinism/country-visits (accessed September 24, 2026).

11. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2025, UN Doc. A/HRC/58/57, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/58/57 (accessed September 24, 2026), para 19.

12. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2019, UN Doc. A/HRC/40/62/Add.3, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/40/62/Add.3 (accessed September 24, 2026), para 52.

13. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2023, UN Doc A/HRC/52/36/Add.1, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/52/36/Add.1 (accessed September 24, 2026), para 68.

14. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2025, UN Doc A/HRC/58/57/Add.1, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/58/57/Add.1 (accessed September 24, 2026), para 33.

15. ^

    OHCHR, "Portugal: Robust Implementation of Laws Necessary for Better Protection of Persons with Albinism, Says UN Expert," press release, November 26, 2025; and OHCHR, "Pakistan: Invisibility Inhibiting Full Enjoyment of Rights by Persons with Albinism, Says UN Expert," press release, June 11, 2026.

16. ^

    Brazil National Health Council, Resolution No. 725 of November 9, 2023, November 9, 2023, https://www.gov.br/conselho-nacional-de-saude/pt-br/atos-normativos/resolucoes/2023/resolucao-no-725.pdf/view.

17. ^

    Emma Keeling, "The Grim Hunt for Albinos in Mozambique," The New York Times, May 5, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/05/05/sunday-review/albinos-in-mozambique.html.

18. ^

    BBC World Service, "My Fight to Dispel Myths About Albinism," The Conversation, July 13, 2020, https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p08qw162.

19. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2025, UN Doc. A/HRC/58/57, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/58/57. (accessed September 24, 2026), para 19.

20. ^

    Ibid.

21. ^

    Africa Albinism Network, "Tanzania's Historic Milestone: Adopting a National Action Plan on Albinism," August 29, 2024, https://africaalbinismnetwork.org/blog/tanzanias-historic-milestone-adopting-a-national-action-plan-on-albinism/.

22. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2025, UN Doc. A/HRC/58/57, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/58/57. (accessed September 24, 2026), para 18.

23. ^

    AU Plan of Action on Ending Attacks and Discrimination against Persons with Albinism (2021-2031), African Union, November 17, 2021, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/albinism/AU-Plan-of-Action-EN.pdf.

24. ^

    Guidelines for Parliamentarians on Accusations of Witchcraft and Ritual Attacks: Towards Eliminating Harmful Practices and Other Human Rights Violations, Pan African Parliament, March 15, 2023, https://flamingo-lynx-gkw4.squarespace.com/s/PAP-guideline.pdf.

25. ^

    Guiding Note on Reporting on the Rights and Welfare of Children with Albinism in Africa, African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, adopted April 2025, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2025-10/guiding-note-welfare-children-albinism-africa-1-en.pdf.

26. ^

    The Global Albinism Alliance, https://www.albinismalliance.org/.

27. ^

    OHCHR, "UN Experts Welcome WHO Decision to Add Sunscreen to Model Lists of Essential Medicines," press release, September 24, 2025.

28. ^

    World Health Organization. The selection and use of essential medicines: report of the WHO Expert Committee, 2005: (including the 14th model list of essential medicines). World Health Organization technical report series; 933. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data; 2005.

29. ^

    OHCHR, "UN Experts Welcome WHO Decision to Add Sunscreen to Model Lists of Essential Medicines," press release, September 24, 2025.

30. ^

    Standing Voice, "Sunscreen Added to Medicine List," https://www.standingvoice.org/emlsunscreen (accessed October 2, 2026); Africa Albinism Network, "World Health Organization Updates List of Essential Medicines to Add Sunscreen," https://africaalbinismnetwork.org/blog/world-health-organization-updates-list-of-essential-medicines-to-add-sunscreen/ (accessed October 2, 2026).

31. ^

    Global Albinism Alliance, "Global Albinism Alliance Congratulates 'Albinos Chile' on Progress Toward Sunscreen Access for People with Albinism," statement, January 28, 2026, https://www.albinismalliance.org/files/280126-pr-attacks-chile-sunscreen.pdf.

32. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2025, UN Doc. A/HRC/58/57, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/58/57. (accessed September 24, 2026), para 19.

33. ^

    Lova Maël Rabemananjara, État des lieux de la situation des personnes atteintes d'albinisme à Madagascar, April 2023, https://africaalbinismnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Rapport-EDL-PAA-VF.pdf; and Masauso Chirwa and Likando Kalaluka, Albinism and Rights in Zambia: An Exploration of Experiences, Sociocultural Conditions and Access to Justice, Study Report, Republic of Zambia Ministry of Community Development and Social Services, with support from UNICEF, 2023, https://www.unicef.org/zambia/media/7411/file/Albinism-and-Rights-Final-September.pdf.pdf.

34. ^

    International Disability Alliance, The CRPD and Refugee Law: A Discussion Paper, 2023, https://www.internationaldisabilityalliance.org/sites/default/files/discussion_paper_crpd_and_refugee_law_for_publication_2023.pdf.

35. ^

    OHCHR, "Communications of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," Special Procedures Communications Database, https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TmSearch/Mandates?m=266.

36. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2025, UN Doc. A/HRC/58/57, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/58/57. (accessed September 24, 2026), para 25.

37. ^

    Africa Albinism Network and Under the Same Sun, Attacks on Persons with Albinism in Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia, factsheet, December 2025, https://africaalbinismnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/Factsheet-AAN-UTTS-January-2026.pdf.

38. ^

    Africa Albinism Network, Statement of Civil Society Organizations on the Desacration of the Grave of a Woman with Albinism In Ngundi Village, Zambia, January 2026. https://africaalbinismnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/PRELIMINARY-STATEMENT-OF-CIVIL-SOCIETY-ORGANIZATIONS-ON-THE-DESECRATION-OF-THE-GRAVE-OF-A-WOMAN-WITH-ALBINISM-IN-NGUNDI-VILLAGE.pdf.

39. ^

    Statement of Civil Society Organizations on the Desecration of the Grave of a Woman with Albinism in Ngundi Village, Senanga District, Zambia, civil society statement, January 14, 2026, https://africaalbinismnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/PRELIMINARY-STATEMENT-OF-CIVIL-SOCIETY-ORGANIZATIONS-ON-THE-DESECRATION-OF-THE-GRAVE-OF-A-WOMAN-WITH-ALBINISM-IN-NGUNDI-VILLAGE.pdf.

40. ^

    Ritual Killing in Africa, "SADC Countries: Warning over 'Undercover Genocide' of Persons with Albinism," June 21, 2026, https://www.ritualkillinginafrica.org/2026/06/21/sadc-countries-warning-over-undercover-genocide-of-persons-with-albinism/.

41. ^

    Godfrey Masiko, "Man Arrested over Suspected Ritual Targeting of Boy with Albinism in Mayuge," Daily Monitor, August 14, 2025, https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/news/national/man-arrested-over-suspected-ritual-targeting-of-boy-with-albinism-in-mayuge-5423802.

42. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2025, UN Doc. A/HRC/58/57, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/58/57 (accessed September 24, 2026), para 8.

43. ^

    OHCHR, Access to Justice for Persons with Albinism: Challenges and Solutions in Zambia, published jointly by the Albinism for Change in Africa Initiative Organization, Albinism Foundation of Zambia, Albinism Multi-Purpose Organisation of Zambia, Butterfly Foundation of Zambia, and Light of the World Foundation, March 2025, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/access-justice-person-with-albinism.pdf.

44. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2022, UN Doc. A/HRC/49/56, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/49/56 (accessed September 24, 2026), para 81.

45. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2025, UN Doc. A/HRC/58/57/Add.1, https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/58/57/Add.1 (accessed September 24, 2026), para 32.

46. ^

    Ibid., para 12.

47. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," January 2024, UN Doc. A/HRC/55/45, https://docs.un.org/en/ A/HRC/55/45 (accessed September 24, 2026), para 15 to 23; UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," March 2026, UN Doc. A/HRC/61/53, https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/61/53 (accessed September 24, 2026); and Human Rights Watch "'I Just Want to Work Without Fear' Discrimination and Violations of the Right to Work for Persons with Albinism in Malawi" (New York: Human Rights Watch 2026), https://www.hrw.org/report/2026/06/12/i-just-want-to-work-without-fear/discrimination-and-violations-of-the-right-to.

48. ^

    UN Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of Human Rights by Persons with Albinism, "Statement on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism," March 7, 2025, https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements-and-speeches/2025/03/statement-enjoyment-human-rights-persons-albinism (accessed September 24, 2026).

49. ^

    UN Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of Human Rights by Persons with Albinism, "Statement on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism," March 7, 2025, https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements-and-speeches/2025/03/statement-enjoyment-human-rights-persons-albinism (accessed September 24, 2026).

50. ^

    OHCHR, "Climate Change Puts People with Albinism at Grave Risk: UN Expert," press release, October 19, 2023.

51. ^

    Ibid.

52. ^

    Ibid.

53. ^

    UN Human Rights Council, "Report of the Independent Expert on the Enjoyment of All Human Rights by Persons with Albinism," March 2026, UN Doc. A/HRC/55/45/Add. 1, https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/55/45/Add.1. (accessed September 24, 2026), paras 11-12.

54. ^

    Ibid., para 74.