Native American stereotypes, as seen by Native Americans

Asked to list stereotypes they had heard about themselves or other Native Americans, more than 200 middle school-age citizens of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, a federally recognized nation located in rural North Carolina, most often cited cultural activities, financial privilege and substance abuse.

The Cornell-led study, among the first to explore Native Americans' perceptions, rather than those of a white majority or other ethnic groups, showed the early adolescents gaining awareness of stereotypes as they moved from sixth through eighth grade, and how context influenced that awareness. Cherokee students attending a pair of more diverse public schools in which they were a minority identified more stereotypes than counterparts at a tribal school.

Understanding prevalent stereotypes - whether they are positive or negative, believed or not - could help schools and parents counter them to support students' development, said Adam Hoffman, assistant professor in the Department of Psychology and College of Human Ecology.

"Research has shown that stereotypes, even positive ones, are detrimental and can impact teens' academic motivation and achievement, mental health and well-being," Hoffman said. "Knowing what kinds of things these kids are hearing and thinking about themselves and Native Americans is important to start working on dismantling those stereotypes."

Hoffman is the first author of "Early Adolescent Cherokees' Reports of Stereotypes About Native Americans," published Sept. 25 in the journal Youth & Society. Co-authors are Beth Kurtz-Costes, professor at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Ash Moomaw, doctoral student at Ball State University; and Bette Fitzgerald and Angela Gunter, teachers at two of the middle schools from which the youth were recruited to be part of the study.

Research to date on Native American stereotypes has primarily featured samples of white adults, using quantitative assessments designed by scholars. The new study sought to center the Cherokee students' perspectives.

"There's been so much erasure of Native American people historically that we don't often get to hear their stories and their voices, especially compared to other racial and ethnic minority groups," Hoffman said. "This research brings Native voices to the table, literally, by asking them about these issues."

After defining stereotypes - ideas about a group that may or may not be true for all people or things in that group - the researchers asked an open-ended question: "Please list the stereotypes that you have heard about Cherokee or Native American people."

The 212 students offered more than 300 responses, which the researchers grouped into 19 categories. More than 13% of the responses referenced positive cultural traditions, from dancing and basket-making to wearing traditional clothes. Substance abuse was cited third most often, in 10% of responses, and was among those that echoed negative stereotypes identified in prior research, such as being "savage," unintelligent or violent. Some stereotypes were categorized as historical distortions likely influenced by media, referencing scalping, buffalo and smallpox. Some were neutral ("we braid our hair").

Tied for the most frequently cited stereotype - not identified in prior research - was what the students called "per cap." That's a reference to the Eastern Band of Cherokees receiving per capita shares of casino revenue, which the teens framed as an entitlement or privilege: "we are rich because we get per cap," "big money," "Cherokees get paid to do nothing." That finding would not be generalizable to all Native Americans - more than half of recognized tribal nations do not have casinos - but highlights the importance of local context in studying stereotypes, the researchers said.

Additional findings showed differences in school context, with public school students where Cherokees were the largest ethnic minority reporting more stereotypes, including a majority of the "per cap" references. Most sixth-graders did not list any stereotypes, indicating a more limited understanding of the concept. The numbers increased in seventh grade and were highest in eighth grade, suggesting that interventions might be effective in that age range, because that is when stereotype awareness emerges. No significant differences were found in how boys or girls reported stereotypes.

"This study provides one of the first accounts of adolescents' spontaneous generation of stereotypes about Native Americans," the researchers wrote, "and shows that early adolescence is a formative time."

The research was supported by the National Science Foundation.